Renewable energy sources: current state of knowledge

The main countries developing this form of power are the United Kingdom, Ireland, France, Spain, China, Japan, South Korea, Canada and the U.S. The United Kingdom leads the way because it is able to harness substantial tide and wave energy in its waters. The European Marine Energy Centre, in Scotland, is very active in hydrokinetic R&D. In the United States, Alaska accounts for over 50% of the country’s theoretical potential, making it the ideal state for demonstration and commercialization projects.

The United Kingdom is one of the countries with the greatest theoretical potential, which is why many demonstration projects are carried out there. Although the country has also been home to a number of commercial projects since 2016, the industry is still in its infancy. Other countries with significant potential for hydrokinetic energy, regardless of the type, are the following:

• Canada, particularly in Baie d’Ungava (Ungava Bay), in Québec, and the Bay of Fundy, in Nova Scotia
• the United States, mainly in Alaska
• Argentina
• Russia, in the Kislaya Guba fjord
• France, in the Rance river region
• Australia
• New Zealand
• India
• South Korea, at Sihwa Lake

The cost per kilowatthour of electricity generation at a generating station operating at least 10 hydrokinetic turbines installed in a string is US$0.25 for ocean currents, US$0.41 for tidal currents and US$0.80 for river currents.

• In terms of output, more predictable than wind power
• No retaining structure, and few or no civil engineering works required
• Discreet or even invisible due to the turbine components’ near-total immersion
• Winter operations possibly problematic. To optimize power output throughout the year, local variations in water levels have to be considered a complex challenge.

Since there are very few hydrokinetic turbines in operation at this time worldwide, information on sustainability issues is still incomplete. Here are the main potential impacts:

• Modifications to currents, wake effect and noise masking
• Modifications to sedimentary dynamics that may affect the estuary regime
• Modifications to substrates and the transportation and deposit of sediments: variable, depending on the type of anchor and underwater cables
• Habitat modification, including benthic organism habitat
• Modification of vegetation and possible impact on aquatic fauna
• Interference with the circulation and migration of certain aquatic species, particularly as a result of magnetic fields generated by electrical cables
• Risk of animal injury or death in the event of contact with moving machinery
• Noise pollution during construction and operation
• Possible conflicts with shipping, fishing, recreational boating, etc.
• Zero greenhouse gas and atmospheric contaminant emissions during operation
• Small environmental impact over the facility’s life cycle

The photovoltaic industry has made considerable progress in the last decade. Its installed capacity shot from 1,790 MW to 584,000 MW between 2001 and 2019 (IRENA, 2020), an average annual increase of close to 40%. In early 2020, photovoltaic solar power accounted for about 5.75% of the world’s renewable electricity output and 23% of the installed capacity for all renewable energies (IEA, 2020). With the substantial growth in photovoltaic and wind power generation in recent years, generating capacity based on renewable energy sources now accounts for 28% of the global electricity mix.

In Québec, centralized photovoltaic solar power generation is in the experimental stage. Hydro-Québec is currently testing two solar generating stations in the Montérégie region with a total output of 9.5 MW (Hydro-Québec, undated). Although not very widespread, decentralized solar power generation does exist in Québec. Hydro-Québec is experimenting with a variety of photovoltaic solar power generating initiatives in both connected and off-grid systems.

When considered over an entire year, solar energy output is quite predictable. But in terms of output at a given moment, it varies widely according to the season, time of day, weather conditions and cloud cover.

Because solar power is intermittent, customer-generators wishing to have electricity available at all times must use some form of energy storage or be connected to the Hydro‑Québec grid. In the latter case, they can take advantage of the utility’s net metering option.

Québec enjoys plenty of sunlight in summer and at noon, but little or none in the morning and evening during the winter, which is precisely when demand peaks on the Hydro-Québec grid. For this reason, large-scale centralized solar generation is not well-suited to the load profile in Québec, particularly in its northern regions.

Daily sunshine levels in Canada vary by region. Southern Québec, where most of the province’s population is concentrated, has more solar potential than Germany and about as much as Japan, which are among the world leaders in PV solar energy.

The availability of solar energy varies widely: the amount of sunshine depends on the time of day, weather and season, and it can be difficult to predict. Daily sunshine levels in Canada also vary by region. In Québec, solar energy is unavailable during peak demand periods (mornings and evenings) in the winter. As a result, photovoltaic systems have to be adapted to the wide swing in sunlight levels we experience between the summer and winter, especially in northern Québec.

This intermittent nature of solar energy poses a number of technical constraints for photovoltaic systems connected to Québec’s power grid, especially when the generating capacity is significant. Ultimately, these constraints are taken into account when deciding whether to use such systems, in light of the costs involved.

In southern Québec, where most of the population is concentrated, the average annual load factor for photovoltaic systems is around 16% or 17%. That is higher than in Germany and Japan, even though they are the leaders in the global photovoltaic solar power industry.

In 2020, energy conversion efficiency for photovoltaic modules used in electrical microgrids averaged 17%. The efficiency rate for multijunction cells can exceed 45% (NREL, 2020), but their production cost is still too high for large-scale use. Photovoltaic technologies have varying levels of sensitivity to temperature, and, as a result, their efficiency and output for a given level of sunshine (insolation) can vary by up to 30% between summer and winter. The main obstacle to the growth of photovoltaic solar power remains the upfront costs. Over the last decade, an entire industry has sprung up thanks to generous incentives, especially for the development of systems connected to power grids. In recent years, however, costs have come down considerably.

In Québec, in 2020, the cost of electricity supplied by small photovoltaic systems connected to the power grid is still higher than the cost of wind power or hydropower generated in the province. However, according to certain energy cost projections (Canadian Energy Regulator, 2020), Québec customer-generators would pay the same electricity rates as Hydro-Québec’s residential customers for the remainder of the decade.

• Reliable system with a long service life (about 30 years).
• Little maintenance required.
• Low operating costs.
• High site potential (buildings, parking lot sun shades, open spaces, etc.).
• No moving parts.
• Scalable design, making it possible to increase installed capacity as required.
• Panels available in different sizes and configurations.
• Output that varies depending on the time of day, weather and season and can be difficult to predict.
• Ground-mounted systems requiring considerable space.

The main issues for large ground-mounted photovoltaic systems are the following:

• Visual impact: number of panels, size, color and light reflection.
• No noise.
• Obstacle to rain runoff and partial soil sealing (depending on system foundation).
• Use of large quantities of water for cooling and cleaning, and production of wastewater.
• Increased risks of soil degradation, including erosion.
• Impact on natural habitats and disruption to wildlife.
• Possible conflicts: farmland, access roads, woodlands and built environments (impact on property values).
• Use of toxic materials during manufacturing.
• Zero greenhouse gas and atmospheric contaminant emissions during operation.
• Small environmental impact over the facility’s life cycle.
• Social acceptance of solar power projects is reflected in the level of public participation.

Wind power continues to make strides all around the world. In 2019, global installed capacity climbed by 59 GW, the second-highest yearly increase on record. Total capacity reached 622 GW by year-end (IRENA, 2020).

The market is dominated by large wind, meaning wind farms that are connected to electric power grids and operated by specialized power companies. Current development efforts focus on building wind turbines with a capacity of more than 2 MW. These large turbines are designed for integration into electric power grids, a growing trend. Offshore wind turbines have capacities of 5 MW or more.

Small wind (<100 kW), on the other hand, is much less wide­spread and remains the domain of small power producers. Total installed small wind capacity in 2018 was 1,727 MW, a 38% increase over 2013. China is home to more than 33% of these facilities, while the United States and United Kingdom account for about 9% (Moreira Chagas et al., 2020). The average installed capacity of small wind turbines is increasing, but remains low. It stood at 0.85 kW in 2013.

Supported by government strategies, Québec’s large wind industry has grown substantially over the last 10 years. Small wind, on the other hand, is virtually non-existent in Québec.

Wind power continues to make strides all around the world. In 2019, global installed capacity climbed by 59 GW, the second-highest yearly increase on record. Total capacity reached 622 GW by year-end (IRENA, 2020).

The market is dominated by large wind, meaning wind farms that are connected to electric power grids and operated by spe­cialized power companies. Current development efforts focus on building wind turbines with a capacity of more than 2 MW. These large turbines are designed for integration into electric power grids, a growing trend. Offshore wind turbines have capacities of 5 MW or more.

Small wind (<100 kW), on the other hand, is much less widespread and remains the domain of small power producers. Total installed small wind capacity in 2018 was 1,727 MW, a 38% increase over 2013. China is home to more than 33% of these facilities, while the United States and United Kingdom account for about 9% (Moreira Chagas et al., 2020). The average installed capacity of small wind turbines is increasing, but remains low. It stood at 0.85 kW in 2013.

Supported by government strategies, Québec’s large wind industry has grown substantially over the last 10 years. Small wind, on the other hand, is virtually non-existent in Québec.

Theoretically, wind turbines can convert up to 59% of the wind’s kinetic energy into electricity. In practice, however, the average is lower. In this respect, small wind fares worse than large wind, as its development is never the object of major technological innovations or investments. Annual utilization factors average between 15 and 25%. The cost of small wind generation is difficult to determine because equipment prices vary widely. In addition, it depends on a key variable: the quality of the winds at the generating site. Furthermore, small wind turbines are not always certified because of the limited financial capacity of many manufacturers. Without a basis for comparison, it is therefore impossible at the time of purchase to make an informed technological choice and to obtain the desired performance guarantees. As things now stand, it is very difficult to determine the cost (¢/kWh) of the electricity produced by small wind, and existing market conditions do not provide any indication that small grid-connected wind facilities could become an economically viable option in Québec in the short term. Off grid, however, small wind is a good option for a wide variety of uses.

• Often cost effective in remote areas, far from the power grid
• In remote areas, it can be used in tandem with other energy options, such as diesel generators
• Energy independence: self-generation for residential, institutional or agricultural purposes or for small communities or small businesses
• Output is variable and often low or nil, especially with a single wind turbine
• Output is difficult to predict with limited means

• No interference with television and radar signals
• Low electromagnetic wave emissions
• Zero emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollution during operation
• Small environmental footprint over facility life cycle
• Significant visual impact at some sites: successful integration with the environment is important
• Noise pollution varies depending on the type of equipment and host environment
• Bird and bat fatalities

Steam reforming of natural gas is a common method of producing hydrogen. When the atoms in methane (CH₄) are exposed to steam and heat, the atoms separate and rearrange themselves in the form of dihydrogen (H₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂).

Today, hydrogen is almost exclusively used in industrial applications, in chemistry and refining. In the future, it could play an important role in the transportation, natural gas, and heat and power generation industries.

Today, 95% of hydrogen is produced from hydrocarbons (oil, coal and natural gas), the lowest-cost method. However, this process emits CO2, a greenhouse gas. Industrial players are therefore increasingly looking into the possibility of producing hydrogen via electrolysis, using low-carbon energies. However, there is still work to be done in bringing down the associated production costs, which are currently considerably higher than for steam reforming. To achieve that goal, costs across the entire production line have to be significantly reduced, including the price of electrolyzers and fuel cell vehicles.

• Non-polluting production if it uses renewable electricity (every other hydrogen production method is polluting)
• No pollutants released by hydrogen combustion, just water
• Ability to produce carbon-neutral fuels (gasoline, fuel oil, kerosene, etc.) by combining hydrogen and carbon chains, such as biomass
• Access to competitively priced low-carbon electricity to reduce the cost of producing hydrogen through electrolysis
• Essential role in decarbonizing transportation
• Hydrogen still more expensive to produce via electrolysis than via natural gas reforming
• Additional costs for certain conversion processes (methanation, Fischer Tropsch), which require CO₂
• CO₂ capture technologies to be developed
• Significant investments required for transportation and distribution infrastructure

• No greenhouse gas is emitted during hydrogen use, but some gas may be emitted during its production, depending on the techniques and energy sources used.
• Hydrogen production, storage and distribution infrastructure are nearly non-existent in Québec. This infrastructure can have a considerable impact on the environment if virgin sites are used. Converting existing sites is therefore recommended.
• Platinum, which is used to make fuel cells for hydrogen-powered vehicles, is a rare metal but can be recycled.